2.4. Division of Human Types by Four

1. What sort of person is not a good man?

Here a certain person is a destroyer of life, taker of things not given, misbehaving in sensual desires, liar, one indulging in the enjoyment of spirituous, fermented liquors and intoxicants. Such is the person who is called “not a good man”.

What sort of person is more “not a good man” than the “not good man”?

Here a certain person is himself a destroyer of life and urges others to do the same, himself takes things not given and urges others to do likewise, himself misbehaves in the matter of sensual desires and instigates others in the same way, himself tells a lie and instigates others to do the same, himself indulges in the enjoyment of spirituous, fermented liquors and intoxicants and instigates others to do the same. Such is the person who is said to be more “not a good man” than the “not good man”.

What sort of person is a good man?

Here a certain person refrains from destruction of life, refrains from taking anything not given, refrains from misbehaviour in the matter of sensual pleasures, and lastly, refrains from indulging in the enjoyment of spirituous, fermented liquors and intoxicants—such is the person who is said to be a good man.

What sort of person is a better man than the good man?

Here a certain person, while he himself refrains from the destruction of life, incites others to refrain, himself refrains from taking things not given, incites others to refrain, himself refrains from misbehaviour in sensual pleasures, incites others to refrain, himself refrains from speaking falsehood, incites others to refrain, himself refrains from indulging in the enjoyment of spirituous, fermented liquors and intoxicants, incites others to refrain. Such is the person who is said to be a better man than the good man.

2. What sort of person is wicked?

Here a certain person is a destroyer of life, taker of things not given, misbehaves in sensual pleasures, is a liar, a slanderer, speaks harsh words, is a gossip, covetous, of malevolent thoughts, an upholder of false doctrines. Such a person is said to be wicked.

What sort of person is more wicked than the wicked?

Here a certain person, while he himself destroys life, instigates others to do the same, while himself takes things not given instigates others to do likewise, while himself misbehaves in sensual pleasures instigates others to do the same, while himself is a liar instigates others to be so, while himself is a slanderer instigates others to slander, himself a harsh speaker instigates others to use harsh language, himself a gossip instigates others to gossip, himself covetous instigates others towards covetousness, himself of malevolent nature instigates others to be malevolent, himself an upholder of wrong views instigates others to entertain such views. Such a person is said to be more wicked than the wicked.

What sort of person is of lovely disposition?

Here a certain person refrains from killing life, refrains from taking what is not given, refrains from misbehaving in sensual pleasures, refrains from speaking falsehood, refrains from slanderous speech, refrains from using harsh language, refrains from gossip, is not covetous or malevolent, is an upholder of right views. Such a person is said to be of lovely disposition.

What sort of person is more lovely than one of lovely disposition?

Here a certain person himself refrains from destruction of life, and incites others as well to cease to kill; himself a refrainer from taking things not given, incites others to abstain from taking what is not given, himself refrains from misbehaving in sensual pleasures and incites others to refrain from misbehaving in sensual pleasures … incites others to right views. Such is the person who is more lovely than one of lovely disposition.

3. What sort of person is of a wicked nature? What sort of person is of a more wicked nature than he who is wicked? What sort of person is of a lovely nature? What sort of person is of a more lovely nature than he who is of a lovely nature?

Answers as in 2.

4. What sort of person is blameworthy?

Here a certain person has come to have blameworthy action, speech, and thought. Such is the person who is said to be blameworthy.

What sort of person is exceedingly blameworthy?

Here a certain person has come to have more of blameworthy action, speech, and thought and less of unblameworthy action, speech, and thought. Such is the person who is said to be exceedingly blameworthy.

What sort of person is little blameworthy?

Here a certain person has come to have more of unblameworthy conduct, speech, and thought and less of blameworthy conduct, speech, and thought. Such is the person who is said to be little blameworthy.

What sort of person is blameless?

Here a certain person has come to have blameless conduct, speech, and thought. Such a person is said to be blameless.

5. What sort of person is quick in acquiring?

The person who comprehends the doctrine at the time of its pronouncement is said to be quick in acquiring.

What sort of person learns by exposition?

The person to whom comprehension of the doctrine comes when the meaning of what is briefly uttered is analysed in detail.

What sort of person is one who may be led?

The person to whom comprehension of the doctrine comes by recitation, questioning, and earnest attention and by serving, cultivating and waiting upon lovely friends is one who may be led.

What sort of person is one with whom the word is the chief thing?

The person to whom comprehension of doctrine would not come in this life, however much he may hear and say and bear in mind or recite, is said to be one with whom the word is the chief thing.

6. What sort of person is one who makes a fit but not a prompt reply?

Here a certain person answers correctly but not quickly when a question is put to him. Such a person is said to be one who makes a fit but not a prompt reply.

What sort of person is one who makes a prompt but not a fit reply?

Here a certain person answers quickly but not fitly when a question is put to him. Such a person is said to be one who makes a prompt but not a fit reply.

What sort of person is one who makes a fit and prompt reply?

Here a certain person who answers quickly and says the fit thing when a question is put to him, is said to be a person who makes both a fit and a prompt reply.

What sort of person is one who makes neither a fit nor a prompt reply?

Here a certain person who answers neither quickly nor fitly when a question is put to him, is said to be a person who makes neither a fit nor a prompt reply.

7. Who are the four preachers of Dhamma?

Here a certain religious teacher speaks but little and what is irrelevant, and the congregation may not be competent to judge what is relevant and what not. Such a teacher, in a congregation such as this, passes for a preacher of the “Norm”.

Here a certain religious teacher speaks but little and what is relevant, and the congregation is competent to judge what is relevant and what not. Such a teacher, in such a congregation, passes for a preacher of the “Norm”.

Here a certain religious teacher speaks much and what is irrelevant, and the congregation is incompetent to judge what is relevant and what not. Such a person, in a congregation like this, passes as a preacher of the “Norm”.

Here again a certain religious teacher speaks much and what is relevant, and the congregation is competent to judge what is relevant and what not. Such a teacher, in such a congregation as this, passes as a preacher of the “Norm”.

These are the four religious preachers.

8. What are the four types of persons comparable to the cloud?

The four kinds of clouds are: That which thunders but rains not, that which rains but thunders not, that which both thunders and rains, that which neither thunders nor rains. Thus are to be found in this world four types of persons who are comparable to these four kinds of clouds. And who are they? One who thunders but rains not, one who rains but thunders not, one who rains and also thunders, one who neither thunders nor rains.

What sort of person is one who thunders but rains not?

Here a certain person does not act up to what he says. Such a man is said to be one who thunders but rains not. Just as the cloud that thunders but rains not, so also is this person.

What sort of person is one who rains but thunders not?

Here a certain person acts but does not speak. Such a person is said to be one who rains but thunders not. Just as a cloud that rains but thunders not, so also is this person.

What sort of person is one who thunders as well as rains?

Here a certain person speaks and acts. Such a person is said to be one who thunders as well as rains. Just as the cloud that thunders and rains, so also is this person.

What sort of person is one who neither thunders nor rains?

Here a certain person neither speaks nor acts. Such a person is said to be one who neither thunders nor rains. Just as the cloud that neither thunders nor rains, so also is this person.

These are the four types of men that are found in this world comparable to the cloud.

9. What are the four types of persons that are comparable to mice?

Four kinds of mice—those that dig their holes but do not live therein; those that live in holes but do not (themselves) dig them; those that live in the holes that they dig; those that neither dig holes for themselves nor live therein. In the same way also there are four types of persons that are found in this world who are comparable to mice. What are the four?

Those that have dug holes but do not dwell. Those who dwell but do not dig. Those who dig and dwell. Those who neither dig nor dwell.

What sort of person is one who digs the hole but does not dwell?

Here a certain person masters the doctrine consisting of the Sutta, Geyya, Vyākaraṇa, Gāthā, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Jātaka, Abbhutadhamma, Vedalla, but all the same he does not truly realise suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, the way leading to the cessation of suffering. Such is the person who is a digger but not a dweller. Just as the mouse digs a hole but does not dwell in it, so also is this person.

What sort of person is one who dwells in the hole but does not dig it?

Here a certain person does not master a doctrine consisting of the Suttas, etc., but he truly realises suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, the path leading to the cessation of suffering. Such a person is a dweller but not a hole-digger. Just as a mouse which dwells in a hole it does not dig, so also is this person.

What sort of person is a digger as well as a dweller?

Here a certain person learns the doctrine consisting of Sutta, etc., and truly realises suffering, etc. Such a person is a digger as well as a dweller. Just as the mouse which digs its hole and dwells in it, so also is this person.

What sort of person is neither a digger nor a dweller?

Here a certain person neither learns the doctrine, nor does he truly realise suffering, etc. Such a person is one who is neither a digger nor a dweller. Just as the mouse which neither digs its hole nor dwells in it, so also is this person. These are the four kinds of persons that live in this world who are comparable to mice.

10. What are the four types of person that are comparable to the mango?

Four kinds of mangoes—immature but of ripe colour; of ripe colour but immature; immature and of unripe colour; ripe as well as of ripe colour. So also there are four persons that live in this world who are comparable to the mango. What are they? One unripe but ripe-hued; one ripe but unripe-hued; one unripe and unripe-hued; one ripe and ripe-hued.

How is a person unripe but ripe-hued?

Here a certain person looks graceful when proceeding forward or backward, when looking this way or that way, while stretching out or bending in (his arms), and when wearing the uppermost robe or the ordinary dress and holding the alms-bowl. He does not truly realise suffering, etc. He does not truly realise also the path leading to the suffering. Thus is a person who is unripe but ripe-hued. Just as a mango which is unripe but ripe-hued. so also is this person.

How is a person ripe but of immature hue?

Here a certain person is not graceful while proceeding forward or backward, while looking this way or that way, while stretching out or bending in (his arms), and when wearing the uppermost robe or the ordinary dress and holding the alms-bowl, but he truly realises suffering, etc. Such a person is ripe but of immature hue. Just as a mango which is ripe but of immature hue, so also is this person.

How is a person unripe and of immature hue?

Here a certain person's movements forward and backward, etc., the holding of the alms-bowl, are not graceful. He does not truly realise suffering, etc. Just as a mango which is unripe and green-hued, so also is this person.

What sort of person is ripe and ripe-hued?

Here a certain person's movements forward and backward, etc., holding of alms-bowl—all are graceful. He truly realises suffering, etc. Thus is a person ripe and also ripe-hued. Just as a mango which is ripe and ripe-hued, so also is this person.

These are the four types of person existing in this world who are comparable to the mango.

11. What are the four types of persons comparable to a jar?

Four kinds of jar—that which is empty but well covered; that which is full but uncovered; that which is empty as well as uncovered; that which is full as well as covered.

In the same way there are four types of persons existing in this world that are comparable to a jar.

What are the four? Empty but covered; full and uncovered; empty as well as uncovered; full as well as covered.

How is a person empty but covered?

Here a certain person whose movements forward and backward, etc., are all graceful; he does not truly realise suffering as it is, etc. Such a person is empty but well covered. Just as the jar is empty but covered, so also is this person.

What sort of person is full and uncovered?

Here a certain person whose movements forward and backward, etc., are not graceful (iv, 10 b). He truly realises suffering as it is, etc. Thus is he full and uncovered. Just as the jar is full and uncovered, so also is this person.

What sort of person is empty as well as uncovered?

Here a certain person whose movements forward and backward, etc., are neither graceful nor does he truly realise suffering, etc. Such is the person who is empty as well as uncovered. Just as the jar is empty and uncovered, so also is this person.

What sort of person is full as well as covered?

Here a certain person whose movements forward and backward, etc., are all graceful. He truly realises suffering as it is, etc. Thus is a person full as well as covered. Just as a jar is full as well as covered, so also is this person.

These are the four types of persons existing in this world who are comparable to a jar.

12. What are the four types of persons who are comparable to a pool of water?

Four kinds of pools: shallow but seeming to be deep; deep but seeming to be shallow; shallow and appearing to be shallow; lastly, deep and appearing to be deep.

What are the four kinds?—shallow but seeming to be deep; deep but seeming to be shallow; shallow and seeming to be shallow; lastly, deep and seeming to be deep.

What sort of person is one who is shallow but seems to be deep?

Here a certain person whose movements forward and backward, etc. [See §§4–10 (a.)] He does not truly realise suffering, etc. Such a person is shallow but seems to be deep. Just as the pool is shallow but seems to be deep, so also is this person.

What sort of person is deep but seems to be shallow?

Here a certain person whose movements forward and backward, etc. He truly realises suffering, etc. Such a person is deep but seems to be shallow. Just as the pool is deep but seems to be shallow, so also is this person.

What sort of person is shallow and seems to be shallow?

Here a certain person whose movements forward and backward, etc., the holding of the alms-bowl are not graceful, and also he does not realise suffering, etc. Thus is a person shallow and seems to be shallow. Just as a pool is shallow and seems to be shallow, so also is this person.

What sort of person is deep and seems to be deep?

Here a certain person whose movements forward and backward, etc., holding of alms-bowl—all are graceful, at the same time he truly realises suffering as it is, etc. He truly realises that this is the way leading to the cessation of suffering. Such a person is one who is deep and seems to be deep. Just as the pool is deep and seems to be deep, so also is this person.

13. What are the four persons that are comparable to the ox?

There are four kinds of oxen;—pest to its own herd but not to another herd; pest to another herd but not to its own herd; pest to its own as well as to another herd; pest neither to its own herd nor to another herd.

In the same manner there are four types of persons existing in the world comparable to the ox.

What are the four? A pest in the congregation but not outside it; a pest outside the congregation but not in it; a pest in as well as outside the congregation; a pest neither in his own nor in another congregation.

How is a person a pest in his own congregation but not outside it?

Here a certain person creates trouble in his own congregation but not in another congregation. Such a person is a pest in his own congregation but not in another. Just as that ox is a pest in its own herd but not in another herd, so also is this person.

How is a person a pest outside but not in his own congregation?

Here a certain person creates trouble in another congregation but not in his own. Such a person is a pest outside but not in his congregation. Just as that ox is a pest outside, but not in its own herd, so also is this person.

How is a person a pest in as well as outside his own congregation?

Here a certain person creates trouble in as well as outside his own congregation. Such a person is one who is a pest in as well as outside his own congregation. Just as that ox is a pest in as well as outside its own herd, so also is this person.

How is a person a pest neither of his own congregation nor of another congregation?

Here a certain person creates trouble neither in his own congregation nor in another congregation. Such a person is said to be a pest neither to his own congregation nor to another congregation. Just as that ox is neither a pest to his own herd nor to another herd, so also is this person.

These are the four types of persons, who live and have their being in this world, comparable to the ox.

14. What are the four types of persons comparable to a serpent?

Four kinds of snake: the quick but not strong poisoning; strong but not quick poisoning; quick as well as strong poisoning; neither quick nor strong poisoning.

In the same manner, there are four types of persons existing in this world, who are comparable to a serpent. What are the four? Persons of quick but strong poison; of strong but not quick poison; of quick as well as strong poison; of neither quick nor strong poison.

What sort of person is of quick but not strong poison?

Here a certain person gets angry repeatedly but the anger does not linger for a very long time. Thus is a person of quick but not of strong poison. Just as that serpent has a quick but has not a strong poison, so also is this person.

What sort of person is of strong but not of quick poison?

Here a certain person does not get angry repeatedly, but when he is angry, his anger endures for a pretty long time. Just as that serpent has a strong but not quick poison, so also is this person.

What sort of person is of quick as well as of strong poison?

Here a certain person gets angry repeatedly, his anger being of long duration, such a person is of quick as well as of strong poison. Just as that serpent has quick as well as strong poison, so also is this person.

What sort of a person is of neither quick nor strong poison?

Here a certain person neither gets angry repeatedly, nor does his anger endure for a long time. Such a person is neither of quick nor of strong poison. Just as the serpent has neither quick nor strong poison, so also is this person.

These are the four types of persons existing in this world, who are comparable to a serpent.

15. How is a person one who speaks in praise of one unworthy of praise without inquiring into and scrutinising (his nature)?

Here a certain person speaks in praise of the heretics or their disciples who are badly or wrongly regulated in conduct, that they are both well conducted and properly conducted. Such a person is one who speaks in praise of one unworthy of praise without inquiring into and scrutinising (his nature).

How is a person one who speaks in dispraise of a person worthy of praise without inquiring into and scrutinising (his nature)?

Here a certain person speaks ill of Buddhas and their disciples who are really well and properly regulated as to their conduct, saying that they are wrongly and badly regulated in conduct. Such a person is one who speaks ill of a person worthy of praise without inquiring into and scrutinising (his nature).

How is a person one who shows satisfaction in an unsatisfactory thing without inquiring into and scrutinising it?

Here a certain person finds satisfaction in a bad and wrong course, saying that this is the good path, this is the right path. Such a person is one who finds satisfaction in an unsatisfactory thing without inquiring into or scrutinising it.

How is a person one who shows dissatisfaction in a satisfactory thing without inquiring, etc.?

Here a certain person finds dissatisfaction in a good and right course, saying that this is a bad path, this is a wrong path. Such a person is one who finds dissatisfaction in, etc.

16. How is a person a speaker in dispraise of a person unworthy of praise after inquiring into and scrutinising (his nature)?

Here a certain person rightly speaks in dispraise of the heretics or their disciples, who are wrongly and badly regulated as to conduct, saying that they are badly as well as wrongly conducted. Thus is a person a speaker in dispraise of an unworthy person after inquiring into and scrutinising (his nature).

How is a person a speaker in praise of a praiseworthy person after inquiring into and scrutinising (his nature)?

Here a certain person speaks rightly in praise of the Buddhas and their disciples, who are well and perfectly regulated in conduct, saying that they are well and perfectly conducted. Such a person is a speaker in praise of a praiseworthy man after inquiring into and scrutinising (his nature).

How is a person one who finds dissatisfaction in an unsatisfactory thing after, etc.?

Here a certain person finds dissatisfaction in a bad and wrong course, saying that this is a bad path, this is a wrong path. Such a person is one who finds dissatisfaction, etc.

How is a person one who finds satisfaction in a satisfactory thing after inquiring into and scrutinising it?

Here a certain person finds satisfaction in a good and right course, saying, this is the good path, this is the right path. Such a person is one who finds satisfaction in a satisfactory thing after, etc.

17. How is a person one who speaks in dispraise of a person unworthy of praise, expressing what is true and right at the right time about him, but does not in the same way speak in praise of what is praiseworthy?

Here a person, when there is something creditable as well as something discreditable (in regard to a person), speaks about the latter, expressing what is true and right at the right time, but does not speak in the same way about the something creditable. It is thus that a man speaks in dispraise of a person unworthy of praise, expressing what is true and right at the right time about him, but does not in the same way speak in praise of what is praiseworthy.

How does a person speak in praise of a person worthy of praise, expressing what is true and right at the right time about him, but does not in the same way speak in dispraise of what is unworthy of praise?

Here a person, when there is something creditable as well as something discreditable (in regard to a person), speaks about the former, expressing what is true and right at the right time but does not in the same way speak about the latter. It is thus that a person speaks in praise of a person worthy of praise, expressing what is true and right at the right time about him, but does not in the same way speak in dispraise of what is unworthy of praise.

How does a person speak in dispraise of a person unworthy of praise and in praise of the praiseworthy, expressing what is true and right at the right time?

Here a person, when there is something creditable as well as something discreditable (in regard to a person), speaks about the latter and also about the former, expressing what is true and right at the right time, being aware of the proper time for answering the question put to him. It is thus that a person speaks in dispraise of a person unworthy of praise and in praise of the praiseworthy, expressing what is true and right at the right time.

How does a person neither speak in dispraise of a person unworthy of praise nor speak in praise of a person worthy of praise, expressing what is true and right at the right time?

Here a person, when there is something creditable as well as something discreditable (in regard to a person), speaks neither about the former nor about the latter, expressing what is true and right at the right time, but keeps up an indifferent attitude, being mindful and thoughtful. It is thus that a person neither speaks in dispraise of a person unworthy of praise nor speaks in praise of a person worthy of praise, expressing the right thing at the right time.

18. What sort of person is he who lives on the fruit of his exertions and not on that of any (previous) merit?

Here a person whose living springs from his (present) exertions (lit. uprising), endeavours, and efforts, not as a result of any (previous) merit, is said to be a person who lives on the fruit of his exertions and not on that of any (previous) merit.

What sort of person lives on the fruit of his merit, but not on that of his exertions?

The devas commencing from Paranimmitavasavattī and those above them: these live on the fruit of merits and not on that of their exertions.

What sort of person is he who lives on the fruit of his exertions as well as on that of merits?

The person whose living springs from his own exertions, endeavours, and efforts, as also from merits, is the person who lives on the fruit of his own exertions as well as on that of merits.

What sort of person lives neither on the fruit of his own exertions nor on that of merits?

Persons (suffering) in purgatory are persons who live neither on the fruit of their own exertions nor on that of merits.

19. How does a person remain in the dark and tend towards darkness?

Here a person born in a family of low degree, be it of Caṅḍalas, or of Nesādas, or of basket-weavers, or of chariot makers, or of Pukkusas, poor, ill-fed, in straitened circumstances, where victuals are obtained with difficulty, is swarthy, ill-featured, hunch-backed, a prey to many diseases, purblind, or with a crooked hand, lame or paralysed, one who receives neither food nor drink, nor raiment, nor conveyances, nor wreaths, perfumes and unguents, nor bed, dwelling, and light; he is an evil doer in deed, word, and thought, he having been an evil doer in deed, word, and thought, is reborn at the disintegration of the body after death in misery, to woeful doom, to disaster. Thus does a person remain in the dark and tend towards darkness.

How does a person who is in the dark tend towards light?

Here a person born in a family of low degree, be it of Caṅḍalas, or of Nesādas, or of basket-weavers, or of chariot makers, or of Pukkusas, poor, ill-fed, in straitened circumstances, where victuals are obtained with difficulty, is swarthy, ill-featured, hunch-backed, a prey to many diseases, purblind, or with a crooked hand, lame or paralysed, one who receives neither food nor drink, nor raiment, nor conveyances, nor wreaths, perfumes and unguents, nor bed, dwelling, and light; he is a well-doer in deed, word, and thought, he having been a well-doer in deed, word, and thought, is reborn at the disintegration of the body after death to a happy destiny in the bright worlds. Thus does a person who is in the dark tend towards light.

How does a person who is in the light tend towards darkness?

Here a person who is reborn into a family of high degree, be it eminently noble or of a brahmin magnate, or of a householder of high position, rich, of enormous wealth, owner of abundant objects of enjoyment, having ample hoards of gold and silver, having ample aids to enjoyment, ample stores of money and corn, is handsome, fair-looking, charming, endowed with the most exquisite complexion, the recipient of food, drink, raiment, means of transport, wreaths, perfumes and unguents, bed, dwelling, and light; he is an evil-doer in deed, word, and thought, he having been an evil-doer in deed, word, and thought, is reborn at the disintegration of the body after death, in misery, to woeful doom, to disaster. Thus does a person who is in the light tend towards darkness.

How does a person who is in the light tend towards light?

Here a person who is reborn into a family of high degree, be it eminently noble or of a brahmin magnate, or of a householder of high position, rich, of enormous wealth, owner of abundant objects of enjoyment, having ample hoards of gold and silver, having ample aids to enjoyment, ample stores of money and corn, is handsome, fair-looking, charming, endowed with the most exquisite complexion, the recipient of food, drink, raiment, means of transport, wreaths, perfumes, unguents, bed, dwelling, and light; he is a well-doer in deed, word, and thought, he having been a well-doer in deed, word, and thought, is reborn at the disintegration of the body after death to a happy destiny in the bright worlds. Thus does a person who is in the light proceed towards light.

20. How does a person stoop down and remain unprogressive? How does a person stoop down but remain progressive? How does a person who is prosperous remain unprogressive? How does a person who is prosperous remain progressive?

These four types correspond respectively to the above four.

21. Who are the four persons comparable to trees?

The four kinds of trees are as follows—one itself weak but surrounded by strong ones; one itself strong but surrounded by weak ones; one itself weak and surrounded by weak ones; one itself strong and surrounded by strong ones.

The four types of person likened respectively unto these four classes of trees exist in this world—a person himself weak but surrounded by the strong; a person himself strong but surrounded by the weak; a person himself weak and surrounded by the weak; a person himself strong and surrounded by the strong.

How is a person who himself is weak surrounded by the strong?

Here a certain person is of bad morals, wicked, while his associates are moral men of lovely nature. Thus is a person who himself is weak surrounded by the strong, just in the same way as a weak tree is surrounded by strong ones.

How is a person who is strong surrounded by the weak?

Here a certain person who is moral, of lovely nature, having associates who are immoral, wicked. Thus is a person who is strong surrounded by the weak, just in the same way as a strong tree is surrounded by weak ones.

How is a person who is immoral, wicked, having associates who are the same? …

How is a person who is strong surrounded by the strong?

Here a certain person who himself is moral and of lovely nature, has similar associates. Thus is a person who is strong surrounded by the strong, just in the same way as a strong tree is surrounded by strong ones.

These are the four persons comparable to trees existing in this world.

22. What sort of person is one estimating by and satisfied with the outward form?

Here a person having observed the height, the compass, the shape, and the finish of a material object, finds satisfaction in it. Such a person is one estimating, etc.

What sort of person is one estimating by and satisfied with others' words?

Here a person engenders faith on the basis of the praise, the adulation, the admiration, the encomiums of others, treating them as a standard of judgement. Such a person is one estimating by and esteeming others' words.

What sort of person is one estimating by and esteeming outward austerity?

Here a person having noticed the austere nature of the garments, or of begging bowls, or of beds and sheets, or having observed manifold austerities, finds satisfaction in them, taking these austerities as a standard of judgement. Such a person is one estimating by and esteeming outward austerity.

What sort of person is one estimating by and esteeming that which is right?

Here a person having noticed the practice of morality, or of meditation, or of insight, finds satisfaction therein, taking these practices as a standard of judgement. Such a person is one estimating by and esteeming that which is right.

23. How does a person strive after his own welfare but not after that of others?

Here a person attains to the moral life but does not encourage others to attain it, himself attains to [the practice of ecstatic] meditation but does not encourage others to attain it, himself attains to insight but does not encourage others to attain it, himself attains to emancipation but does not encourage others to attain, himself attains to the perception of a consciousness of emancipation but does not encourage others to attain that perception. Such a person is one who strives after his own welfare but not after that of others.

How does a person strive after others' welfare but not after his own?

Here a person does not himself attain to the moral life but encourages others to attain it, does not himself attain to [the practice of ecstatic] meditation but encourages others to attain the same, does not himself attain to insight but encourages others to attain insight, does not himself attain to the practice of emancipation but encourages others to attain that state, does not himself attain to the perception of a consciousness of emancipation but encourages others to attain that perception. Thus does a person strive after others' welfare but not after his own.

How does a person strive neither after his own welfare nor after that of others?

Here a person neither himself attains to the moral life nor encourages others to attain to the moral life, neither himself attains to [the practice of ecstatic] meditation nor encourages others to attain the same, neither himself attains to insight nor encourages others to attain insight, neither himself attains to emancipation nor encourages others to attain that state, neither himself attains to the perception of a consciousness of emancipation nor encourages others to attain that perception. Such a person is one who strives neither after his own welfare nor after that of others.

How does a person strive after his own welfare as well as after that of others?

Here a person himself attains to the moral life and also encourages others to attain the moral life, himself attains to [the practice of ecstatic] meditation, and also encourages others to attain the same, himself attains to insight and also encourages others to attain insight, himself attains to emancipation and also encourages others to attain that state, himself attains to the perception of a consciousness of emancipation and also encourages others to attain that perception. Such a person is one who strives after his own welfare as well as after that of others.

24. How does a person become self-mortifying and addicted to practices tending to self-mortification?

Here a person goes naked, is of loose habits; licks his hand clean, does not stop nearer or wait a moment if politely requested to do so, refuses to accept food brought to him, refuses to accept food especially prepared for him, does not accept any invitation, does not accept food from a cooking-pot or a pan, does not accept food placed within the threshold, does not accept food placed among the pestles, does not accept food when two persons are eating together, does not accept from a woman with child, from a woman giving suck, from a woman living as a wife, does not accept food offered at consecrated places, does not accept food when a dog is standing by, nor where flies are swarming down, does not accept fish, or flesh, or strong drink, or intoxicant, or sour gruel, begs from one house, eats just one morsel, or begs from two houses, eats just two morsels, or begs from up to seven houses, eats up to seven morsels, keeps himself going on only one alms or only two … up to seven alms, takes only once a day or once every two days, or once every seven days, conforming in this way to the practice of taking food according to rule, at regular intervals, up to even half a month, feeds on pot-herbs, on wild rice, on Nivāra rice, on Daddūla rice, on unhusked grain, on grains of rice or scum of rice, on oil cakes, on grasses, on cow dung, on fruits and roots from the woods, on fruits that have fallen of themselves, wears coarse hempen cloth, coarse cloth of mixed fibres, wears cloth taken from a dead body, clothing made of dust-heap rags, clothing made of bark, the skin of a black antelope, dress made of a black antelope's hide, dress made of kusa grass, garments made of bark, garments made of pieces of wood, hair-garments, garments made up of horse's. tails, garments made up of feathers of owls; he is a plucker-out of hair and beard, addicted to the practice of plucking out both hair and beard; he is a stander-up rejecting the use of a seat, he is a squatter addicted to the effort of squatting, he is a bed-of-thorns-man, lying on a bed of thorns, he is addicted to the practice of going down into water thrice a day up to the evening. Thus he dwells addicted to many such tortures of the body. Thus does he become a self-mortifier and addicted to practices tending to self-mortification.

How does a person become tormentor of others and remain addicted to practices tending to oppression?

Here a person is a sheep-butcher, a boar-hunter, a deer-stalker, a bird-catcher, a snarer, a fish-killer, a thief, a public executor, a jailer, or a committer of other such cruel acts. Thus does a person become tormentor of others and remain addicted to practices tending to oppress others.

How does a person come to combine the characteristics of the above two types?

Here a person is a king, a crowned monarch, or a brahmin of great wealth and influence; he having a new sacrificial house built to the east of the capital city, having his hair and beard shaven, having put on a black antelope's skin, anointed his body with clarified butter and oil, scratching the back with the horn of an antelope, he enters the sacrificial house together with his queen-consort and brahmin priest, there he lies down in a narrow space on the yellow painted ground; the king lives on the quantity of milk that can be drawn from one udder of a cow with a calf resembling her (in colour), the queen-consort lives upon the quantity of milk that can be drawn from the second udder, the brahmin priest lives upon the quantity of milk that can be drawn from the third, the fire-sacrifices are performed with the quantity of milk that can be drawn from the fourth, and the calf lives upon the quantity that is left; thus he commands—that so many bullocks be slain for the sacrifice, that so many bull-calves, so many cow-calves, so many goats, so many rams be slain for the sacrifice, so many trees be cut down to make posts, so much dubba grass be mown to be strewn around the sacrificial spot; the slaves or the messengers or the workmen that are employed carry out his orders impelled by the whip, impelled by fear, weeping with tears upon their faces. Thus a person comes to combine the characteristics of the above two types.

How does a person come to bear the characteristics of neither of those two types?

He tortures neither himself nor others, and in this world he without any hankering, at peace, cool, enjoying bliss, lives with a self become godlike.

Here it happens that a Tathāgata is born in this world, an exalted, perfectly enlightened Buddha, enriched with insight, and virtuous deportment, walking in the right path, the knower of the world, the unsurpassed, the guide to persons amenable to discipline, the teacher of devas and men, Buddha, the Blessed One,—he having come to know and realise by himself, this world together with those of the devas, the Māras, the Brahmās, together with the recluses and brahmins, dwellers together with devas and men, instructs others about it; he imparts instruction beneficial in its inception, beneficial in its continuation, beneficial in its conclusion, full of meaning, couched in appropriate terms, couched in suitable language; he expresses, sets forth the higher life in its purity and entire fullness. To this instruction does a householder listen or his offspring or one who is born in another family; he listening to this instruction gains faith in the Tathāgata. Endowed with this acquisition of faith, he ponders thus: cramping is household life, a dusty path! Open and wide is the way of renunciation! Not easy is it while living the household life to practise the higher life, full and entire, supremely pure, pure like well-wrought conch shell, I must therefore depart from home into a homeless life, having my hair and beard shaven, covering my body with yellow garments; so it happens that at a subsequent date, he abandoning his entire store of wealth, whether this be large or small, abandoning his circle of relations, whether this be few or numerous, wanders away from home into the homeless state, having his hair and beard shaven, covering his body with yellow garments. Thus initiated into the religious order, while adopting the mode of training and living followed by the bhikkhus, he putting away the (intentional) killing of living beings, abstains from the (intentional) slaughter of life, putting aside the rod, putting aside the sword, ashamed of cruelty, merciful, compassionate, and kind to all living beings; putting away the taking of what has not been given him, he abstains from accepting what is not given; he takes what is given expecting only what is given, he passes his life in honesty, with a self become pure; putting away the unchaste life, he is chaste, not unchaste, refraining from sexual life, from village nature; putting away lying words, he refrains from telling a lie, speaks the truth, always aiming at the truth, is trustworthy, never betraying his trust to the world; putting away slanderous speech, he refrains from calumny, hearing something at one place, he does not relate the same at another place with a view to foment quarrel against the former party, hearing something elsewhere, he does not relate it here with a view to foment a quarrel against the people there. Thus as a reconciliator of those that have separated, as an augmenter of the unity of those who are already united, rejoicing in union, jubilant over unity, he is in the habit of uttering words tending to reunion; putting away rough words, he refrains from offensive language, he speaks those words that are blameless, pleasing to the ear, affectionate, appealing to the heart, refined, gladdening the people, captivating the heart of many; putting away silly talk, he refrains from idle talk, speaks at the right time, speaks what is true,speaks according to the good, according to religion, according to self-control, utters speech worthy of being treasured up, sometimes with illustrations clearly defined, pregnant with meaning.

He refrains from doing injury to the forms of life whether in the germinal or grown-up state; he takes but one meal a day, not eating at night, refraining from an untimely meal; he abstains from being a spectator at dances, songs, music, and (such other) amusements; he abstains from wearing garlands, besmearing and adorning his body with scents and unguents, and using (such other) articles for beautifying; he abstains from using high and fine couches; he abstains from taking (all that is included under) gold and silver; he abstains from accepting uncooked rice, uncooked meat, women and girls, male and female slaves, goat and sheep, fowls and pigs, elephants, cows, horses and mules, fields and residences, as gifts; he refrains from the practice of acting as a go-between or a messenger; he abstains from buying and selling; he abstains from cheating with scales or coins or measures; he abstains from the crooked way of bribery, cheating, and fraud; he abstains from mutilating, killing, putting in bonds, highway robbery, dacoitry, and acts of violence.

He is satisfied with robes just enough to protect his body, with alms just enough to feed his stomach, wherever he goes taking these with him. Just as a winged bird wherever it flies, flies with just the load of its wings, in the same way the bhikkhu is satisfied with robes just enough to protect his body, with alms just enough to feed his stomach, wherever he goes he goes taking these with him. Endowed with these Ariyan moral precepts, he experiences within himself the happiness which is blameless.

He having seen an object with his eye does not fasten his mind upon the general form of details thereof, but sets himself to restrain that which gives occasion for the sinful immoral tendencies, covetousness, and dejection to flow in over him while he was dwelling unrestrained as to the sense of sight, he guards the faculty of sight, he attains to control over the sense of sight. Similarly having heard sound with his ear, having smelt an odour with his nose, having tasted a savour with his tongue, having touched a tangible thing with his body, having cognised a mental object with his mind, he does not fasten his mind upon the general form of details thereof but sets himself to restrain that which gives an occasion for the sight and immoral tendencies, covetousness, and dejection to flow in over him while he was dwelling unrestrained as to his mind, his faculty of thought; he guards his mind, he attains to control over the faculty of thought. Endowed with this Ariyan mastery over the senses, he experiences within himself the happiness which is blameless.

In going forth and in coming back, he acts deliberately, and as also in looking at or around, in stretching forth his arm, or in drawing it in again, in putting on the saṅghāṭī and other robes, or in carrying the alms-bowl, in eating or drinking, in masticating or swallowing, in obeying the calls of nature, in going or standing or sitting, in sleeping or waking, in speaking or in remaining in a state of silence.

Endowed with this Ariyan moral behaviour and endowed also with this excellent practice of mindfulness and awareness, endowed also with this Ariyan way of contentment, he takes shelter in a lonely spot, whether it be forest, or the foot of a tree, or a hill side, or a grotto, or a rocky cave, or a cemetery, or a forest tract, or an open field, or a heap of straw; he returning thither after his round for alms, seats himself cross-legged when his meal is done, keeping his body erect, setting mindfulness ahead; putting away the hankering after the world he dwells with his mind free from covetousness, he purifies his mind of greed; putting away the evil propensities to injure he dwells with a heart free from ill-will; compassionate and kind to all living beings he purifies his mind of malevolence; putting away laziness and drowsiness he dwells being free therefrom; conscious of the presence of light, mindful and aware of experiences he purifies his mind of sloth and torpor; putting away worry and flurry he dwells free from fretfulness; with his heart tranquil within he purifies his mind of worry and flurry; putting away perplexity he dwells free from doubt; no longer doubting as to what is good he purifies his mind of scepticism.

Putting away these five hindrances which trouble the heart and weaken insight, he eschewing sensual desires, eschewing evil states, enters upon and dwells in the first stage of ecstatic meditation, attended with applied and sustained thought, joy, and bliss born of mental isolation. With the cessation of applied and sustained thought he enters upon and dwells in the second stage of ecstatic meditation, a state of joy and bliss born of concentration free from applied and sustained thought—a state of concentration of mind, and inner tranquillisation of heart. By absence of passionate longing for joy he remains in equanimity, and aware of his mental states and experiences, he enjoys bliss through his body, which the Ariyas describe when they say, “the man serene and mindful dwells at ease”. And thus he dwells entering upon the third stage of ecstatic meditation.

Then putting away both ease and pain, and with the previous dying away of joys and griefs he dwells entering upon the fourth stage of meditation void of ease and pain, a state made pure by equanimity and thoughtfulness. Now with his mind thus concentrated, rendered supremely pure and bright, freed from contamination, with disturbing factors cleared off, rendered soft and pliant, fixed, and unperturbed, he bends forth his mind to acquire the knowledge enabling him to remember his previous births, he calls to mind previous existences in various shapes, it may be one birth, two births, three, four, five to ten, to twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, one hundred, one thousand or one hundred thousand births in many periods of cosmic revolution, in many periods of envelopment and development taken together to the effect “there I have been born under such and such a name, in such and such a family, of such and such a caste, lived on such and such kinds of food, experienced such and such pleasure and pain, and had such and such an end of [that] life; when I had deceased from that state I was reborn in another state, where I was of such and such a name, of such and such a family, of such and such a caste, lived upon such and such kinds of food, experienced such and such pleasure and pain, such was the end of [that] life, having again deceased from that state I was reborn here”. Thus does he recall in manifold ways his previous dwelling-places with forms of destinies in details.

And again with his mind thus concentrated, rendered supremely pure and bright, freed from contamination, with disturbing factors cleared off, rendered soft and pliant, fixed and unperturbed, he bends forth his mind to acquire the perception of appearance and disappearance of other beings. He sees with deva-vision clarified, surpassing that of ordinary human beings, living beings deceasing from one state and being reborn into another; he perceives beings of inferior or superior order, good-looking and ugly, well-situated or ill-fated, faring according to their own karma. He recognises that these are verily beings guilty of evil deeds, of offences committed by way of words and thoughts, calumniators of the Ariyas, upholders of erroneous views, adhering to practices associated with erroneous judgement, they on the dissolution of the body after death, are reborn in hell, in a condition of utter ruin, a woeful state of pain; that those [others] are, on the other hand, beings who came into full possession of good deeds, of merits earned by them on account of words and thoughts; not reviling the Ariyas, upholders of right views, adhering to practices associated with sound judgement, they on the dissolution of the body after death are reborn in the heavenly world, to a happy destination. Thus does he see with deva-vision clarified, surpassing that of ordinary human beings, living beings deceasing from one state and being reborn into another; he perceives beings of inferior or superior order, good-looking and ugly, well-situated or ill-fated, faring according to their own karma.

Now again with his mind thus concentrated, rendered supremely pure and bright, freed from contamination, with disturbing factors cleared off, rendered soft and pliant, fixed and unperturbed, he bends forth his mind to acquire the knowledge of the process of the destruction of sinful tendencies (āsavas). He truly understands that this is suffering and that this is the genesis of suffering, that this is the cessation of suffering, that this is the path leading to the cessation of suffering; he truly knows that these are the sinful tendencies, that this is their genesis, etc. When he knows and sees thus, his mind becomes free from the tendency to sensual pleasures, from the tendency to be reborn, and from the tendency to ignorance. And when [the mind] is emancipated, there is the knowledge that it is emancipated and he knows that birth is destroyed, the holy life has been led, duties have been accomplished, and there is no more of these conditions. Thus a man does not become a self-mortifier, nor become addicted to practices leading to self-mortification, and is not a mortifier of others, and is not devoted to practices leading to mortification of others. He tortures neither himself nor the self of others, and in this world he, without any hankering, at peace, cool, enjoying bliss, lives with a self become godlike.

25. What person is said to be possessed of passion?

One whose passion has not been put away;—this person is said to be one possessed of passion.

What person is said to be one possessed of hatred?

One whose hatred has not been put away: this person is said to be one possessed of hatred.

What person is said to be one possessed of delusion?

One whose delusion has not been put away: this person is said to be one possessed of delusion.

What person is said to be one possessed of pride?

One whose pride has not been put away:—this person is said to be one possessed of pride.

26. How does a person attain the inner tranquillity of mind but not the higher wisdom of insight into things?

Here is a certain person who attains [ecstatic meditation] accompanied by an idea of form or the idea of formlessness but does not attain the supramundane path or the fruition. In this way a person attains the inner tranquillity of mind but not the higher wisdom of insight into things.

How does a person attain the higher wisdom of insight into things but not the inner tranquillity of mind?

Here a certain person is an attainer of the supramundane path and fruition, but not of ecstatic meditation accompanied by an idea of form or the idea of formlessness. In this way a person attains the higher wisdom of insight into things but not the inner tranquillity of mind.

How does a person attain both these?

Here a certain person attains ecstatic meditation accompanied by an idea of form or by an idea of formlessness as well as the supramundane path and fruition. In this way a person attains both of these.

How does a person attain neither?

Here a certain person attains neither ecstatic meditation accompanied by an idea of form or by an idea of formlessness nor supramundane path and fruition. In this way a person attains neither.

27. How is a person said to be going with the stream?

Here a certain person enjoys sensual pleasures and commits sinful deeds. This person is going with the stream.

How is a person said to be going against the stream?

Here a certain person neither enjoys sensual pleasures nor commits sinful deeds. He with suffering and with sorrow, with tears on the face and lamenting, practises purity, full and unspotted. This person is one going against the stream.

How is a person said to be established?

Here a certain person on account of the destruction of the five fetters causing rebirth in lower regions becomes a being of apparitional rebirth, attaining there the final release, not liable to return from that world. This person is one who is established.

How is a person “a brahmin, who has crossed the stream, has gone to the other shore, and is established in fruition”?

Here a certain person because of the destruction of his sinful tendencies lives having known and realised in this very existence, emancipation of mind and insight, free from sinful tendencies: this person is said to be a “brahmin, who has crossed the stream, gone to the other shore, and is established in the fruition”.

28. How is a person one who knows little and does not act up to what he has learnt?

Here a certain person possesses little knowledge of Sutta, Geyya, Vyākaraṇa, Gāthā, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Jātaka, Abbhuta, and Vedalla, but knows neither the meaning nor the truth, does not follow the Dhamma either in its entirety or in its details. Such a person is said to be one who knows little and does not act up to what he has learnt.

How is a person one who knows little and acts up to what he has learnt?

Here a certain person possesses little learning, namely of Sutta, etc.; he, knowing the meaning and the truth of that little learning, practises the Dhamma in its entirety and in its details. In this way a person is said to be one who knows little and acts up to what he has learnt.

How is a person one who though much learned does not act up to his learning?

Here a certain person has much learning, namely of Sutta, etc.; he not knowing the meaning and the truth of that great learning, does not follow the Dhamma in its entirety or in its details. In this way a person is said to be one who though much learned does not act up to his learning.

How is a person one who is much learned and acts up to his learning?

Here a certain person has great learning, namely of Sutta, etc.; he knowing the meaning and the truth of that great learning, follows the Dhamma in its entirety and in its details. In this way a person is said to be one who is much learned and acts up to his learning.

29. How is a person a recluse with a firm footing?

Here a certain person through the complete destruction of (three) fetters becomes a “stream attainer”, no more liable to fall (into a woeful state), but is destined to succeed and has enlightenment for his end and aim; this person is said to be a recluse with a firm footing.

How is a person said to be a red-lotus-like recluse?

Here a certain person through the complete destruction of three fetters and having made passion, hatred, and delusion attenuated, becomes a once-returner; coming only once back to this world, he makes an end of suffering. This person is said to be a red-lotus-like recluse.

How is a person a white-lotus-like recluse?

Here a person through, the complete destruction of the five fetters causing rebirth in the lower worlds, becomes a being of apparitional rebirth, attaining there the final release, not liable to return from that world. This person is said to be a white-lotus-like recluse.

How is a person said to be a delicate recluse?

Here a certain person because of the destruction of his sinful tendencies lives having known and released in this very existence the emancipation of mind and insight, free from sinful tendencies—this person is said to be a tender recluse.

Here ends the grouping of human types by Four.